Surveying and Land
Information Systems
VOLUME 60, No. 3 (2000)
Editorial Latitudes
Joseph C. Loon
This is an issue devoted to Joseph F. Dracup who passed away
in January 2000. In addition to the tributes from Gary Young and Jerry Price we
feature an article Joe coauthored with Harold Nelson. We hope that you enjoy
the article and the photographs. Joe's passing brings to mind the rich history
of surveying and mapping in this country. The changes in surveying technology
over the past century are mind-boggling. Many of today's young students coming
out of our colleges and universities are surely unaware of the trials and
tribulations suffered by surveyors, for example, in measuring a base line 150
years ago.
A quotation from the Geodesy page to be found on the
internet site mentioned below states that "The surveyors and engineers of
the Coast and Geodetic Survey surveyed the mountains, plains, deserts, and
shores of the United States and its territories-a difficult task that required
not only technical ability but also fortitude, perseverance, physical strength,
and quiet courage. Their spirit served the Nation well. The geodetic surveys
accomplished by the field personnel of the Coast and Geodetic Survey have:
- Been a major factor in the
world-wide effort to develop more accurate values for the size and shape of the Earth;
- Helped determine the placement and
design of many of the great civil works of the United States;
- Served as the control surveys for
the national mapping efforts of the United States Geological Survey;
- Helped with many of the technical
aspects of our Nation's defense;
- Determined many state boundaries
within our United States as well as the boundaries of many of the nations of
the Americas; and
- Helped determine property lines
throughout much of our Nation."
New technology is progress but we always need to remind ourselves
of our rich heritage. We hope that this issue does this in some small way other
articles in this issue draw attention to the good work being done in our
universities that are training the next generation of surveyors. In future
issues we hope to publish articles by students at our universities and we
invite faculty and students to submit manuscripts for publication.
OUR COVER
This issue's cover features a Coast Survey party measuring
Epping Plains Base. The photograph was taken in 1857 and is from the NOAA
Historical Photo Collection, which can be accessed in the Internet at http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/lb_images/historic/c&gs.
This address will get you access to thousand's of photographs. You will find
photographs and information relating to Geodesy, Nautical Charting,
Oceanography, Who Was Who, Sights and Views, and War Service. Many of these
photographs were taken in the 19th Century. In the Geodesy photograph section
you will be able to access Astronomic Latitude and Longitude, Survey Marks, Triangulation-Surveying
America, Topographic Mapping the Shoreline, Determining the Elevations
-Leveling a Continent, and my favorite, Camp Life. Happy web browsing!
Peer-reviewed Articles
A Tale of Two Eras in American Geodesy
Harold E. Nelson and Joseph F. Dracup
The year is 1857 and James Buchanan is the 15th president of
the United States. It is the 50th year after the founding of the Survey of the
Coast (renamed the United States Coast Survey in 1836), and Alexander Dallas
Bache is in his 14th year as superintendent. He succeeded to the position on
the death of the first superintendent, Ferdinand R. Hassler, in November 1843.
After about 25 years, the primary triangulation (or first-order triangulation
as the work would later be known) is complete from Maine to Virginia, except
for a measured baseline in Maine. The measurement of this baseline in 1857, and
its subsequent re-measurement in 1991-92 using satellite technology, is the
basis for our tale, but first we set the stage leading up to these events.
Demystifying Area Uncertainty: More or Less
Charles D. Ghilani
This paper discusses techniques that can be used to analyze
uncertainty in computed areas for the purpose of ascertaining the proper number
of significant figures that should be shown in an area expression. I develop a
statistical procedure based on the familiar coordinate method for area
computations and then propose two less rigorous procedures that can be used to
arrive at the same decision. I then demonstrate the use of these equations on
three figures that vary in size from a urban/suburban lot to a typical Midwest
farm.
Enhancing the First-Year Experience in Surveying
Thomas A. Seybert, Charles D. Ghilani, and Brian J.
Naberezny
Before fall 1999, first-semester students in the Surveying
Program at the Pennsylvania State University began their program of study with
one course in plane surveying. The course introduces the fundamental topics of
plane surveying, measurement error theory, basic field measurements, and
equipment operation. Exposure to the profession is handled through written
article reviews from professional publications. Most students entering the
program indicate interest in total stations, data collectors, computers, GPS
technology, and working outdoors. To increase retention of students in the
surveying program, the faculty concluded that those aspects of surveying that
attract students to the major should be introduced in the first semester. Also,
a structured overview of the areas of specialization in the profession was
desirable. The introductory course has been changed to address these concerns.
In addition to revising the course, Penn State introduced a first-year seminar
as a general education requirement for all university students beginning the
fall 1999 semester. A freshman seminar course for surveying majors has been
created to satisfy this general education requirement, as well as augmenting
the introductory surveying course changes.
Field and Computer Applications of Surveying Principles
in Site Development
Ashraf M. Ghaly
In 1997, the Civil Engineering Department at Union College
prepared a self study of its program as a prelude to the ABET visit in October
of that year. Letters were sent to civil engineering alumni requesting feedback
and comments on the program. Numerous comments were made about the importance
of placing more emphasis on, and incorporating advanced software packages in,
surveying education. These comments were carefully considered and taken into
account in structuring the syllabus of the following offering of the surveying
course. The principles and fundamentals learned in the classroom were applied
in the field through a large-scale, multi-faceted project. This project
incorporated all aspects learned in lab exercises and involved a widely used
computer software package to manage data files, conduct analysis, and get
results. The assignment given in this project involved surveying over 10 acres
of land with relatively flat terrain in the center but with steep slopes and
rugged boundaries. The data gathered comprised coordinates and elevations of
points at different locations. The compiled data were used to plot digital maps
with triangulation, contours, profiles, and boundaries. The maps were then used
to recommend methods of developing the site and to prevent the deterioration of
some of its steep slopes. The project involved geo-technical and
geo-environmental engineering, slope stabilization, and structural aspects, in
addition to surveying. Although in the beginning students felt that the
assigned task was overwhelming, they very much appreciated the positive impact
this project had on enhancing their learning experience and improving their
ability to apply surveying principles in a practical way. They recommended that
this, or a similar, project be implemented in future course offerings.
Experiences in the Delivery of an Internet Course
Charles D. Ghilani, and Thomas A. Seybert
In the fall of 1998, the Penn State Surveying Program
offered its first open Internet course to off-site students. The course,
Surveying Measurement Analysis, was offered to both off-site and resident
students in a traditional fifteen-week semester. A course syllabus, notes,
practice exams and exams were developed and placed on the web. Course materials
were developed so that the students could complete the course entirely at home.
After the course, student satisfaction surveys were solicited from off-site
students. Accomplishments, successes, and failures of this course are openly
presented and discussed. Future goals in web course development are discussed.
Book Reviews
Elements of Photogrammetry with Applications in GIS, 3rd
edition, by Paul R. Wolf and Bon A. Dewitt. 2000. McGraw Hill, Madison,
WI. ISBN 0-7-292454-3. 608 p.
Hardcover $124.65 (Amazon.com)
This third edition of Elements of Photogrammetry is quite
timely. Paul Wolf wrote the first edition over 25 years ago and the second
about 17 years ago. Since then there have been many technological developments
that have impacted photogrammetric procedures, instrumentation, and practices.
The 3rd edition is takes cognizance of the major technological advances that
have recently taken place, focusing especially on the past decade.
The layout of
this book is similar to the second edition; there is an introduction and a
discussion of the fundamental principles of photography and optics, which
gradually progresses beyond rudimentary photogrammetry. Not surprisingly, the
3rd edition includes most of the chapters of the second edition; however, it
also contains some very useful additional materials with 21st century flavor.
In the Introduction,
the authors define photogrammetry in general terms, giving a brief historical
background of photographs (and photogrammetry) and their uses for topographic
mapping. Chapters two, three, and four discuss the basic principles of optics,
lenses, (analogue and digital) image formation, and the type of cameras used
for photogrammetric imaging. In Chapter Three, the focus is on the calibration
of both metric and non-metric cameras. Chapter Four discusses photographs as a
measurement medium in two-dimensional image space; the factors that affect an
image; and the necessary refinements required to correct distortions. In
Chapter Five, the three-dimensional object space coordinate system is
discussed. Basic concepts of geodesy are explained, including coordinates
systems, map projections, and datums relevant to mapping in general, and
photogrammetry in particular.
Chapters six, seven, and eight are devoted to discussions of
the fundamental principles of photogrammetry-the vertical photograph, stereoscopic
viewing and parallax-for determining horizontal and vertical ground
coordinates. Chapter Nine describes methods developed for compiling planimetric
maps from vertical photographs and satellite imagery, while chapter ten covers
tilted photographs and the steps for rectifying them for mapping.
The topic of
chapters eleven, twelve and thirteen is analytical photogrammetry, its
mathematical bases and the attendant stereoscopic instruments. Stereoscopic
plotting instruments are discussed under four classifications-Direct Optical
Projection, Mechanical Projection, Analytical Projection, and Softcopy
Plotters. The application of these instruments for spatial data compilation is
also treated.
Chapters fourteen and fifteen cover digital image processing
and softcopy photogrammetry. The digital image, spatial frequency, image
contrast, spectral transformations and image operations are described. The
principles of softcopy photogrammetry are also discussed, focusing on epipolar
geometry, image matching, and digital orientation. Automation in the production
of DEMs and orthophoto are also covered. Chapter Sixteen is devoted to
photogrammetric control. The authors have covered the selection and location of
ground control, and planning the control survey. The methods available for
establishing ground control, both traditional and GPS, are discussed in some
detail.
Aerotiangulation-the determination of ground coordinates by measuring
photocoordinates-is the topic of Chapter Seventeen. The chapter has two parts:
Part I covers semianalytical aerotriangulation, focusing on sequential strip
and simultaneous adjustment of independent models, while Part II is devoted to
bundle adjustment. Part II includes a
discussion on the use of airborne GPS control (ABGPS), and there is also
a description of the use of
aerotriangulation with satellite images. Chapter Eighteen covers project
planning, briefly touching on flight mapping and planning, cost estimating, specifications,
and scheduling. Chapter Nineteen, effectively the last chapter on
photogrammetry, covers terrestrial and close-range non-aerial applications,
drawing attention to unique cameras and procedures used in these applications
and the analytical solutions. Chapters Twenty and Twenty-one deal with
geographic information systems (GIS) and photogrammetric applications in the
implementation of GIS. The concept of GIS as layers of information is
discussed. Spatial (and non-spatial) data, data formats, data conversion, and
topological and GIS analytical operations are discussed. The book ends with a
discussion on the important roles photogrammetry (and remote sensing) play in
the development and implementation of GIS applications.
The materials
contained in Elements of Photogrammetry with Application in GIS are presented
in a straightforward and fairly easy-to-read manner. The scope and level is
suitable for a wide range of students or practitioners. Readers that want to
learn photogrammetry on their own will benefit from it. Practicing
photogrammetrists and other mapping science professionals can use it as
reference. The materials in the book are solid and suitable for an introductory
course in photogrammetry at undergraduate level. At the same time, some of the
latter chapters and appendices cover topics that will be very appropriate for
the more advanced student.
Background
knowledge in algebra, geometry, and trig is assumed, but the book provides
basic material in optics and physics. The book gives ample background
information as well as uses photographic illustrations and diagrams to convey
its message. Where necessary, worked examples are used to illustrate the
concepts being discussed. More example problems plus valuable lists of
references for further study are given at the end of each chapter. The book may
not necessarily be read from chapter to chapter in a chronological order, but
various chapters on particular topic may be selected together for emphasis.
On the whole,
Elements of Photogrammetry with applications in GIS is a good source of
information and a useful text on photogrammetry.
Reviewed by:
Peter Kuntu-Mensah, Assistant Professor, Texas A&M
University, Corpus Christi
Geological Maps - An Introduction, 2nd ed., by Alex
Maltman. 1998. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-97696-2. 260 p.
Paperback $54.95.
If you would like to have just one book to clarify or review
the fundamentals of geologic maps and the wealth of knowledge about the Earth's
surface and subsurface that can be gleaned from them, Maltman's Geological Maps
- An Introduction is a wise choice. The preface of the second edition points
out that, "although geology is undergoing great changes, geological maps
remain as fundamental as ever." Geologic maps are the primary tool for
visualizing the 3-dimensional structure of the Earth's crust and for
interpreting changes over time. With the continuous introduction of
sophisticated software that enables the user to perform 3-D manipulations of
numerous data sets, it is imperative that users have a fundamental
understanding of how the images were derived and what they represent.
Maltman clearly
writes from years of teaching experience, as his second edition expands on
"certain points on which some students appear perennially to get
stuck." His approach is to explain basic map principles using real
examples. The examples are not limited to the usual folded Appalachians, the
Black Hills, and the Sierra Nevada. Instead, Maltman uses examples from
Australia, the United Kingdom, mainland Europe, New Zealand, Africa and the
United States. Because these are global
examples, an index map showing locations would be a useful addition - perhaps
on a generalized global tectonic map. There are several significant changes
from the first edition. Worked solutions to end-of-chapter exercises are
assembled at the end of the text. Problem sets include practice with contacts,
contours and isopachs. Each quantitative solution is followed by a narrative
that explains how the answer was derived. The second edition also includes new
chapters on applications in environmental geology and on understanding the
landscape (geomorphology). In support of these, more emphasis is placed on surficial
deposits. The book is fully and well illustrated. A section containing selected
further reading occurs at the end of each chapter, and all sections are
compiled at the end of the book. The
book contains eight color plates in the center; other diagrams are black and
white, and most are clearly reproduced.
Geological Maps
is organized as follows. Chapters 1-6 contain fundamentals of U.S. and U.K.
geologic maps and elements of geologic map interpretation, including structure
contours, measurements in three dimensions (strike, dip, formation thickness
and 3-point method), geologic cross sections (including fence and block
diagrams), and visual assessment of outcrop patterns. Chapters 7-10 address
unconformities, folds, faults, igneous and metamorphic terrain, mineral
deposits, and superficial deposits. Chapters 11-15 include interpreting
geological histories from maps, environmental geology, understanding landscape,
heritage, and a short history of geologic maps and map production. Chapters
conclude with some combination of chapter summaries, selections for further
reading, and excellent illustrative problems. Having taught many of the courses
in the undergraduate geology curriculum and some in geography, I see Maltman's
book as a fine addition to a lifelong learner's reference (and practice)
library.
Reviewed by:
Katherine Price Blount, Texas A&M University, Corpus Christi
Instructions for Contributors
to Surveying and Land Information Systems
The editors of Surveying and Land Information Systems
(SaLIS) always welcome manuscript submissions. Your adherence to these
instructions will help to ensure that your manuscript receives the attention
that it deserves.
Submission Requirements
Please submit one hard copy and one electronic version of
your manuscript to the editor, Joseph C. Loon, Blutcher Endowed Chair in
Surveying. Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi, CI 312, 6300 Ocean Drive,
Corpus Christi, TX 78412. Tel: (361) 825-5854; Fax: (361) 825-2795. E-mail:
Joseph.Loon@mail.tamucc.edu. Manuscripts will not be returned.
The cover letter
should state expressly that the manuscript is being submitted to Surveying and
Land Information Systems and that it has not-and will not-be submitted
elsewhere until the SaLIS editorial board has rendered its decision. Both the
cover letter and the manuscript should include complete address(es) of the
author(s), including building and room numbers, telephone and fax numbers, and
e-mail address(es). If there are more than one author, indicate who is the
contact author.
Contributed manuscripts
should be typed double spaced, on one side of 81/4" x 11" white
paper, with generous margins to provide space for the reviewers' comments.
Pages should be numbered, and tables and figures may, for the purposes of the
review process, be within the text. Copies of illustrations rather than the
originals should be submitted with the initial manuscript. The digital version
of the submitted manuscripts can be in ASCI, WordPerfect, Microsoft Word, or
Rich Text Format.
Authors are
responsible for obtaining permission to reuse any copyrighted material
contained in their articles and must provide written evidence of these
permissions with the final version of their manuscript.
The Review Process
In general, contributed manuscripts are reviewed by at least
two peer reviewers selected by the editor. The purpose of the peer review
process is to ensure that the manuscript is understandable, substantially
correct, and of interest to a significant number of readers. Authors may
suggest appropriate reviewers. Most contributed manuscripts are returned to
authors for revision before being accepted for publication.
Final Submission Requirements
Upon acceptance of your manuscript, you will be provided
with a digital template containing the style sheet of Surveying and Land
Information Systems. The template is in MS Word (Office 2000). Authors are
expected to format their final submissions using the digital style sheet of the
journal.
To access the
style sheet, go to FORMAT/STYLE and select the appropriate style: Heading1 (for
main title of paper); Heading2 (authors' byline); Abstract: AuthorID; Heading3
(the highest-level heading in text); Heading4 (the second-highest head in
text); Heading5 (third-highest head); FirstPara (for the first paragraph after any
heading); BodyText (for all other paragraphs); EquatioLine1 (for the first line
of an equation); EquationLine2; BulletNoSpace, etc. Please do not use styles
marked as "Don't Use;" they are MS Word native styles and could not
be removed from the template.
The better you
format your manuscript, the faster it will be processed into galley proofs, and
published.
Some general format requirements to observe are:
1.Title page: This page should
include the main title of the manuscript and the name(s), title(s), and full
mailing and contact addresses. It is the authors' responsibility to update the
contact information should they change positions, complete study, or move to
another location within 6 months of submitting the accepted version of their
manuscript.
2. Abstract: Each peer-reviewed
article must have an abstract summarizing the main points of the article.
Abstracts should be between 100 and 200 words in length.
3. Literature Citations: All works
cited in the manuscript should appear at the end of the manuscript under the
heading "References." Citations within the text should be by author
and year of publication, such as (Laird 1995), Laird (1995) or (Laird 1995, p.
125). Use the "ReferenceText" style in the template to format the
font and point size of reference entries. For capitalization and punctuation,
please refer to a published version of SaLIS for guidance. Manuscripts provided
with unstyled reference sections or
styled according to a different format will take longer to get from the
editing to the publication stage.
4.Acknowledgements should be listed
under a heading of that name, just before the "References" section.
5.Tables should be numbered and
titled. Tables should be provided in separate files and on separate pages at
the end of the accepted manuscript.
6.Artwork. All artwork must be
provided in printable formats, which include high resolution (i.e., 300 dpi)
tagged image format (TIF) files or encapsulated postscript (eps) files with
tiff previews. MS Word graphics and other low-resolution formats or files are
not acceptable and will be returned.
The Editorial Process
At this stage of the publication process, manuscripts are
edited for language. After the editing has been completed, authors receive the
galley proofs of their papers with editorial queries. The process of responding
to the queries has been fully digitized. The editorial process is managed by
Ilse Alipui, SaLIS Managing Editor, ACSM, 6 Montgomery Village Avenue, Suite
403, Gaithersburg, MD 20878. Tel: (240) 632-9716 ext. 109; Fax: (240) 632-1321.
E-mail:ilse@acsm.net
All questions regarding editorial queries on galley proofs and how to submit
artwork digitally should be referred to the Managing Editor.